VOLUME 89 - ISSUE 2

PURPOSE: Natural language models and chatbots, particularly OpenAI’s Generative Pre-Trained Transformer architecture, have transformed human interaction with digital interfaces. The latest versions, including ChatGPT-4o, offer enhanced functionalities compared to their predecessors. This study evaluates the accuracy of ChatGPT-4, ChatGPT-4o, and Claude 3.5 Sonnet in answering questions from the Brazilian Retina and Vitreous Society certification exam.
METHODS: We compiled 200 multiple-choice questions from the Brazilian Retina and Vitreous Society 2018 and 2019 exams. Questions were categorized into three domains: Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina, Retinal Pathology, and Diagnosis and Treatment. Using a standardized prompt developed according to prompt design guidelines, we tested ChatGPT-4, ChatGPT-4o, and Claude 3.5 Sonnet, recording their first responses as final. Three retina specialists performed a qualitative analysis of the answers. Accuracy was determined by comparing responses to the official correct answers. Statistical analysis was conducted using chi-square tests and Cohen’s Kappa.
RESULTS: Claude 3.5 Sonnet achieved the highest overall accuracy (72.5%), followed by ChatGPT-4o (66.0%) and ChatGPT-4 (55.5%). Claude 3.5 Sonnet and ChatGPT-4o significantly outperformed ChatGPT-4 (p<0.01 and p=0.03, respectively), while no significant difference was observed between Claude 3.5 Sonnet and ChatGPT-4o (p=0.16). Model responses agreed 74.5% of the time, with a Cohen’s κ of 0.47. Retinal Pathology was the best-performing domain for all models, whereas Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina and Diagnosis and Treatment were the weakest domains for Claude 3.5 Sonnet and ChatGPT-4, respectively.
CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to assess Claude 3.5 Sonnet, ChatGPT-4, and ChatGPT-4o in retina specialist certification exams. Claude 3.5 Sonnet and ChatGPT-4o significantly outperformed ChatGPT-4, highlighting their potential as effective tools for studying retina specialist board exams. These findings suggest that the enhanced functionalities of Claude 3.5 Sonnet and ChatGPT-4o offer substantial improvements in medical education contexts.

Keywords: Artificial intelligence; ChatGPT; Retina; Medical education; Ophthalmology, Large language model; Natural language processing

PURPOSE: To assess the one-year impact of prostaglandin analog (travoprost) on periorbital appearance and lower eyelid horizontal tension, compared with the contralateral eye treated with Pascal selective laser trabeculoplasty.
METHODS: This nested case-control study was derived from a non-inferiority randomized clinical trial comparing Pascal selective laser trabeculoplasty efficacy with travoprost in fellow eyes over 12 months. One eye received daily travoprost, while the contralateral eye underwent Pascal selective laser trabeculoplasty. Lower eyelid horizontal tension was measured using a validated digital imaging method, and prostaglandin-associated periorbitopathy signs were graded by masked observers. Statistical analyses included generalized estimating equations and the Mann–Whitney U test for nonparametric data, with p<0.05 considered significant.
RESULTS: Ten patients met the inclusion criteria for this subanalysis. Travoprost-treated eyes had significantly lower mean lower eyelid distension compared with Pascal selective laser trabeculoplasty-treated eyes (4.32 mm vs. 5.02 mm; mean difference: 0.70 mm; p<0.001). Prostaglandin-associated periorbitopathy scores were significantly higher in the travoprost group, reflecting more pronounced changes in ptosis, periorbital hyperpigmentation, and eyelid retraction.
CONCLUSIONS: Chronic use of prostaglandin analogs is associated with notable periorbital changes and increased lower eyelid tension, potentially affecting aesthetics and ocular function. Pascal selective laser trabeculoplasty may offer a safer profile for preserving periorbital anatomy while maintaining effective intraocular pressure control. Laser trabeculoplasty should be considered as an initial treatment when appropriate to minimize cosmetic and functional changes from chronic topical therapy.

Keywords: Prostaglandin analogs; Selective laser trabeculoplasty; Periorbitopathy; Eyelid tension; Glaucoma treatment

PURPOSE: This study aimed to identify the strategies adopted by Brazilian ophthalmologists to control myopia in clinical practice.
METHODS: This was a prospective cross-sectional study. Data were collected using an online questionnaire.
RESULTS: Responses from 148 participants were collected between March and May 2024. The majority of respondents were general ophthalmologists (51%) and pediatric ophthalmologists (43%). They came from all regions of Brazil, but more than half (52%) were from the Southeast region. Most participants (30%) had over 20 years of clinical practice experience. A significant proportion (89.2%) treated progressive myopia. The most requested complementary exams were optical biometry (83.78%) and corneal topography or tomography (69.59%). Behavioral measures were considered the most effective myopia treatment strategies by 41.2% of the respondents, followed by optical (33.8%) and pharmacological interventions (25%). Most recommended spending more time outdoors (94.59%) and reducing screen time (93.92%). Spectacle lenses for myopia (83.11%) and 0.025% atropine eye drops (54.73%) were the most prescribed treatments after the recommendation of environmental and behavioral changes.
CONCLUSION: This study presents a novel analysis of the clinical strategies for myopia control among Brazilian ophthalmologists. Understanding current clinical practices and identifying possible improvements are essential steps toward developing evidence-based guidelines and professional education aimed at improving patient care.

Keywords: Myopia/epidemiology; Refractive errors; Contact lenses; Myopia/drug therapy; Atropine/therapeutic use; Ophthalmologists; Practice patterns, physicians’; Surveys and questionnaires; Brazil/epidemiology

PURPOSE: To evaluate structural differences in amniotic membrane fragments subjected to different preservation techniques for potential ophthalmologic applications.
METHODS: Three placentas were collected from healthy donors, and four amniotic membrane fragments were prepared from each placenta. The fragments were divided into four groups with three samples each: cryopreserved, lyophilized, vacuum-dried using a vacuum concentrator, and fresh (control). After processing, the fragments were fixed, sectioned, and analyzed using scanning transmission electron microscopy to assess tissue morphology.
RESULTS: All samples met the established evaluation criteria. No morphological differences were observed among the groups. The structural characteristics of lyophilized and vacuum-dried membranes were comparable with those of cryopreserved and fresh membranes. However, vacuum drying demonstrated the greatest practicality for ophthalmologic use, as it allows membrane availability at any time and storage at room temperature.
CONCLUSION: Vacuum drying using a vacuum concentrator, lyophilization, and cryopreservation preserve the morphological characteristics of the human amniotic membrane similar to those of fresh tissue. A standardized protocol using a vacuum concentrator may be established owing to its advantages in storage convenience and accessibility.

Keywords: Amnion/transplantation; Cryopreservation/methods; Freeze drying; Lyophilization; Ophthalmologic surgical procedures; Regenerative medicine

PURPOSE: To assess the reliability and penetration depth of an automated micropuncture system using a tattoo machine.
METHODS: Twenty human corneas were obtained and subjected to intrastromal micropuncture using a tattoo machine. Each cornea was divided into two halves: one received pigment, while the other received saline solution as a control. The Cheyenne tattoo machine was operated at 60 Hz, with standardized needle exposure (six passes per application). The machine used cartridges containing five microneedles. The study was registered with Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária ANVISA (numbers 80281110015, 80281110016, and 80281110019). The pigment used was Electric Ink black ink, with a density of 1,271,460 μg/mL. Puncture depth was measured before and after the procedure using both anterior segment optical coherence tomography and histopathological analysis. Puncture depth measurements were analyzed using ImageJ software. Each cornea was measured thrice, and the results were subsequently compared.
RESULTS: No corneal perforations were observed with the use of the tattoo machine, and puncture depth measurements ranged from 107 to 486 µm.
CONCLUSIONS: The use of a tattoo machine represents a viable and accessible approach for keratopigmentation, with potential for both cosmetic and therapeutic applications. Its adaptation for controlled intrastromal drug delivery may enable the targeted treatment of deep infectious keratitis, corneal neovascularization, and stromal inflammatory disorders, representing a promising approach for corneal stromal diseases. Further research is needed to optimize techniques and evaluate long-term safety and efficacy, particularly for the delivery of antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-vascular endothelial growth factor agents.

Keywords: Eye banks; Cadaver; Cornea; Corneal stroma; Drug delivery systems; Tissue donors; Tattooing/instrumentation; Punctures

PURPOSE: To evaluate the academic and professional trajectories of graduates from the Graduate Program in Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences at the Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, including geographic distribution, occupational characteristics, and scientific productivity.
METHODS: This descriptive, retrospective, quantitative study included 498 alumni who completed the program between 1979 and 2021. Data were obtained from institutional records and supplemented by public databases (Google Scholar, Lattes Platform, and LinkedIn). The analyzed variables included demographic characteristics, academic background, current professional role, and bibliometric indicators (citation count and h-index). Statistical analyses comprised nonparametric tests and linear regression, with a significance level set at 5%.
RESULTS: Most alumni were Brazilian (96.6%) and physicians (90.7%), predominantly located in the Southeast region (66.9%). Doctoral training was completed by 80.5% of participants. Alumni with current institutional ties to Universidade Federal de São Paulo or Hospital São Paulo demonstrated significantly higher citation counts and h-index values. No significant correlation was observed between time since graduation and citation count (p=0.185). Alumni engaged in academic roles or with postdoctoral training showed greater scientific productivity.
CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the strong academic performance and professional integration of alumni from Universidade Federal de São Paulo, particularly within public institutions and the Southeast region of Brazil. Doctoral training and institutional affiliation were associated with higher scientific productivity. Alumni tracking provides valuable insights into the impact of postgraduate programs and informs strategic planning and development.

Keywords: Factual databases; Program evaluation; Medical education; Graduate education; Ophthalmology; Linear models

PURPOSE: To evaluate whether specific meibomian gland morphological features can serve as diagnostic indicators of dry eye disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
METHODS: This cross-sectional study included patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and age-matched healthy controls. All participants underwent a comprehensive ocular surface evaluation, including the ocular surface disease index, tear break-up time, Schirmer’s I test, corneal staining, eyelid margin scoring, meibum expressibility assessment, meibography scoring, and evaluation of meibomian gland loss area. Meibomian gland morphology was assessed bilaterally. Dry eye severity was determined based on ocular surface disease index scores, tear break-up time, Schirmer’s test results, and corneal staining scores. Correlations between meibomian gland features and ocular surface parameters, age, diabetes duration, and hemoglobin A1c levels were analyzed. Receiver operating characteristic analysis was performed to determine the diagnostic value of specific meibomian gland features for dry eye disease.
RESULTS: Dry eye disease was diagnosed in 56.6% of patients with diabetes and 22.6% of controls. Compared with controls, patients with diabetes had significantly higher ocular surface disease index scores, greater corneal staining, worse meibum expressibility, increased meibomian gland loss, and lower tear break-up time and Schirmer values (all p<0.05). Meibomian gland dropout, shortening, tortuosity, distortion, overlapping, ghost glands, and lack of extension to the lid margin were significantly more prevalent in patients with diabetes (p<0.05) and showed significant correlations with age, HbA1c levels, and diabetes mellitus duration. Receiver operating characteristic analysis identified meibomian gland dropout, ghost glands, shortening, and lack of extension to the lid margin as the most predictive morphological features for dry eye disease in patients with diabetes.
CONCLUSION: Type 2 diabetes mellitus is associated with distinct meibomian gland morphological alterations that correlate with both dry eye disease severity and systemic diabetic parameters, suggesting potential diagnostic value.

Keywords: Diabetes mellitus; dry eye syndromes/diagnosis; Meibomian glands/diagnostic imaging; Meibomian gland dysfunction; type 2/complications

PURPOSE: Polycystic ovary syndrome is frequently associated with autonomic nervous system dysfunction, even in the absence of obesity or overt metabolic abnormalities. Alterations in pupillary responses may reflect early autonomic involvement and serve as a potential tool for early diagnosis, risk stratification, and disease monitoring. This study aimed to investigate pupillary reflex parameters using dynamic pupillometry in newly diagnosed non-obese women with polycystic ovary syndrome and to compare the findings with those of healthy controls. Methods: This prospective cross-sectional study included 48 newly diagnosed women with polycystic ovary syndrome and 44 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Pupillary function parameters were measured using dynamic pupillometry (MonPackOne; Metrovision, France). Results: The mean age did not differ significantly between the groups (p=0.870). Initial pupil diameter, pupil contraction amplitude, and contraction velocity were significantly lower in the PCOS group than in the control group, whereas pupillary dilation duration was significantly longer (p<0.001, p<0.001, p=0.007, and p=0.032, respectively). No significant differences were observed between the groups regarding contraction latency, contraction duration, dilation latency, or dilation velocity (p=0.749, p=0.925, p=0.653, and p=0.310, respectively). Conclusion: Newly diagnosed non-obese women with polycystic ovary syndrome exhibit significant alterations in pupillary dynamics, suggesting a generalized reduction in both sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. Dynamic pupillometry may represent a practical, noninvasive tool for detecting early autonomic hypoactivity and identifying patients at risk for future metabolic or cardiovascular complications.

Keywords: Autonomic nervous system; IPupil/physiology; Reflex, Pupillary/physiology; Polycystic ovary syndrome/diagnosis; Menstruation disturbances; Ideal body weight

PURPOSE: This study aimed to analyze ocular surface parameters and evaluate meibomian gland dysfunction using meibography in newly diagnosed patients with atopic dermatitis compared with healthy controls.
METHODS: This cross-sectional clinical study included 51 newly diagnosed patients with atopic dermatitis and 45 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Disease severity was assessed using the Eczema Area Severity Index. The Ocular Surface Disease Index questionnaire, Schirmer test, tear meniscus height, noninvasive tear break-up time, conjunctival redness grading, and meibography staging were performed. Meibomian gland dropout was graded for each eyelid from 0 (no loss) to 3 (loss of >2/3 of the total gland area).
RESULTS: Schirmer test values, tear meniscus height, and noninvasive tear break-up time were significantly lower in the atopic dermatitis group than in the control group (p<0.001, p<0.001, and p<0.001, respectively). In contrast, Ocular Surface Disease Index scores, conjunctival redness grades, and total meiboscores were significantly higher in the atopic dermatitis group than in the control group (p<0.001, p<0.001, and p<0.001, respectively). Moreover, in the atopic dermatitis group, a significant positive correlation was observed between the Eczema Area Severity Index score and total meiboscore (rₛ=0.390, p=0.005), while a significant negative correlation was found between the Eczema Area Severity Index score and Schirmer test results (rₛ=−0.301, p=0.032). Conclusions: Newly diagnosed patients with atopic dermatitis exhibit significant alterations in tear film parameters and meibomian gland morphology compared with healthy individuals. These patients should be monitored for early development of dry eye disease and meibomian gland dysfunction to prevent associated complications.

Keywords: Dermatitis, atopic; Ocular surface; Meibomian gland dysfunction; Meibography; Dry eye syndromes

In Part II, this paper addresses ocular motions, their causes (forces), and the governing laws, beginning with the fundamental question: Why do the eyes move? Ocular rotations and different types of translations (ocular, orbital, and corporeal) are reviewed. The discussion then turns to how the eyes move, where concepts such as the plane of muscular action, torque, and arc of contact provide possible explanations for the anatomical arrangement of the ocular muscles within the orbit. Sherrington’s law of reciprocal innervation is used to explain the distribution of muscular active forces in a conservative mechanical system, but in combination with Hering’s law, it may prevent eye rotation (e.g., isometric contractions of antagonist muscles of an asymmetrical convergence). Normally, however, the limitation of an eye rotation is determined by passive forces, evoked by muscular activity itself, particularly natural muscular elasticity. Thus, elongation of an antagonist muscle may passively restrict the active contraction of an agonist. In addition to mechanisms for initiating rotation (active forces) and stopping it (passive forces), the oculomotor system also requires a means of dissipating energy (dissipative forces) to initiate subsequent movements. Hence, it cannot function as a perfectly conservative system of forces. The paper concludes with a review of “selective” effects of muscle function (due to the sparse distribution of fibers), the role of intermuscular membranes (and pulleys), and mechanical considerations of surgical procedures, such as muscular transpositions to alter or abolish actions (e.g., bifid reinsertions). Part III will address the diagnostic complexities of the oculomotor system, general treatment principles, and ocular fixation (eye and head positions). Although the basic concept of the primary position is relativized, the absolute need for referential conditions in defining, qualifying, and measuring strabismus is emphasized. The prim-diopter is challenged due to its lack of “linearity” relative to angular units, and an alternative is proposed. Methods of examining oculomotor disturbances are outlined, including monocular rotations (ductions), and tests to differentiate between muscular deficiencies and opposing forces. Techniques for identifying the site of a rotational restriction are described, followed by approaches to measuring ocular deviations in diagnostic positions. The concepts of muscular overactions and underactions are analyzed before introducing the concept of diagnostic muscle pairs. Classical knowledge about deviations caused by deficient or restricted muscle actions reinforces the theory of distribution of rotational ocular muscles by diagnostic pairs. For vertical deviations, “underactive” muscle pairs must be separately matched (e.g., RSR with LIR, RIO with LSO). Since vertical recti exert stronger vertical actions than oblique muscles, head tilts are recommended to enhance stress on both pairs, mainly by additional stimulation of oblique muscles. Classical diagnostic directions then align with the objective horizontal plane. The article concludes with peropertative oculomotor testing and a broad protocol for evaluating oculomotor imbalance.